Gender Studies (CSS): Feminist Theories and Practice

III.  Feminist Theories and Practice

What is Feminism?

Feminism is a theory that men and women should be equal politically, economically, and socially. It is socio-political movement to end men’s discrimination against women. The term had first appeared in french medical text for “cessation in development of sexual organ in male patients” in 1817.

Historically, feminist movement in Europe started with the French Revolution in which Olympe de Gouges was fighting for extension of women rights promised by the revolution. At the end of 1791, she had published her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen, and the question of women's rights became central to political debates in both France and Britain. Another, Britain feminist Mary Wollstonecraf’ published her book A Vindication of the Rights of Woman: with Strictures on Political and Moral Subjects in 1792. In which she argued “women are equally capable than men, they also possess reason”.

The women’s demand for equality and end of discrimination took formal and organized shape of movement in Europe and America with the Seneca Falls Convention, in July 1848. Elizabeth Stanton and Lucretia Mott organized convention in New York City. It was attended by 300 participants. The Declaration of Sentiments was issued. It mainly demanded voting rights for women including other social and legal rights. 

The role of women in society and economy was realized in two great wars. Despite, their contribution in wars they were not acknowledged. Thus, this led to civil rights movement of women in 1960s and 70s.

Feminism Theories

1. Liberal feminism

Liberal feminists have argued that women and men are endowed with the same rational and spiritual capacities, and that gender should not be a barrier to full citizenship, legal rights, and equal educational and economic opportunities. Liberal feminism mainly deals to overcome women’s inequality in social Institutions.  liberal feminism has been instrumental in improving opportunities for women in education and employment and in providing women with more legal and reproductive self-determination

What is difference between radical and socialist feminism?

2. Radical feminism

The term radical feminism emerged in 1960s. It presents variety of feminist views about oppression of women. It emphasizes that social structure “patriarchy” is cause of women operation. So, their basic goal was changing the core values of society by removing ‘male dominance’. First way to end oppression was to end ‘sexism’, such as, men's control of women's sexuality and reproduction and men's use of rape and battering to violate women's bodily integrity. The radical feminists argued that the “objectification of women is main cause of it”. Thus, for example, they protested against Mis. America Beauty Contest, 1968 and dumped high heels, and lipsticks in ‘Freedom Trash Can’.  Radical feminism focused on theory building to change the mindset, attitudes and social structure of the society. It aims to transforming social institutions, gender relationships, and create self-determination.  Therefore, academic study of feminism started during this time period. Book The Dialectic of Sex by Shulamith Firestone, 1970 aimed to change men's control over women's sexuality and reproduction. Another book Sexual Politics by Kate Millett, 1970. She explores the role patriarchy plays in sexual relations, especially those between men and women.

3. Socialist Feminism

Socialist/Marxist feminism is based on Marxist framework of economic oppression of women. It says that equal opportunity or rights are impossible in class-based society. It assumes that women are not oppressed by men but by capitalism. In which most of the means of production and wealth are accumulated by the few, which are mainly men. Socialist feminist demanded radical change (dismantle) existence social structure and replace it with socialist system. They argued that women are doing double work, they work outside their home and are also responsible for home making, and in return they did not earn much. This is source of operation for them. Thus, they should be given equal wages and their home responsibility should also be shared by men. 

4. Psychoanalytical feminism

Its origin is based on theory of personal development by Freud-suggested boy is victim of Oedipus complex, while girl is Electra complex. In simple words, Psychoanalytical feminists believe that gender inequality comes from early childhood experiences, which lead men to believe themselves to be masculine, and women to believe themselves feminine. Psychoanalytic feminism asserts that men have an inherent psychological need to subjugate women. The root of men's compulsion to dominate women and women's minimal resistance to subjugation lies deep within the human psyche. This branch of feminism seeks to gain insight into how our psychic lives develop in order to better understand and change women's oppression. The pattern of oppression is also integrated into society, thus creating and sustaining patriarchy. 

5. Men’s feminism

Men have played a role in supporting women’s struggles for equality since the late 18th century. In the ‘first-wave’ feminist movement of the 19th and early 20th centuries, men supported campaigns for women’s suffrage. But many women felt that men’s presence was disruptive and thus developed a more autonomous women’s movement. However, some feminists and more radical (pro)feminist men criticised the ‘men’s liberation’ perspective for diverting attention from women’s oppression. The men’s movement also led to academic engagement with the subject of men and masculinities and the development of the new field of Men’s Studies or Critical Studies of Men and Masculinities. Since the 1990s, there appears to have been a shift towards a greater acceptance of men within feminism. Despite this increasing openness towards men’s involvement, the question of men’s relationship to feminism has been, and remains, contentious.  ‘The question of who is “inside” or “outside” feminism will never be settled once and for all. In relation to the question of whether men can be feminists, the debate rests largely on two alternative conception to whether to include men in feminism or not? First, is feminist identity and consciousness is grounded in female experience. Feminists have recognised the diversity of women’s experiences, and they have continued to view men’s experiences as unitary and inherently patriarchal. Another potential barrier to male feminism is men’s interests. Most men benefit from patriarchy, regardless of their individual behaviour towards women. The benefits are in terms of money and ‘authority, respect, service, safety, housing, access to institutional power, and control over one’s own life. If men benefit from the current system in these ways, why would they seek to change it?

6. Post Modern Feminism

Write a short note on Postmodern Feminism

The postmodern feminism is often associated with the work of Judith Butler (1990, 1993).  It criticizes the conflation of sex and gender, essentialist generalizations about men and women, and the tendency to view gender as fixed, binary (e.g., male and female), and determined at birth.  Postmodern feminism rejects a dualistic view of gender, heteronormativity, and biological determinism. Postmodern feminists argue against the assumption that all women share a common oppression; this assumption has, innocently naturalized the category of “woman” into a white, heterosexual, middle-class, able-bodied, young- to middle-aged norm. The combination of postmodernist theory and feminism allows for a questioning of essentialist approaches within and outside of feminism.