Topics Covered
- Conceptualization of Security in Twenty First Century
- Elements of Power and National Power
- Balance of Power and its types
- Foreign Policy: Determinants, Decision Making and Analysis
- Sovereignty: and Its types
- National Interest
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| Security in Twenty First Century |
Conceptualization of Security in Twenty First Century
The concept of security dates back to ancient times. Machiavelli
(1469-1527) in his book “Prince” mentions that successful prince would provide
security to his state and citizens. Machiavelli
also based theory of social contract and state formation on concept of security
in his book “Leviathan”.
Present
day, international security is also called as Global Security. International Security (IS) emerged as new subject as “security studies” with end of World War – II. The
reason UN was established on 24th oct, 1945 to
solve security issues and bring peace. It
has five dimensions that include human, environment, national, transnational,
and trans-cultural security.
There
are different opinions about security:
Security
is considered to be “high politics”. – McDonald.
“Not
all political issues are security issues whereas all security issues are
political problems”. – Edward Kolodziei. The
security dilemma is negative consequence of anarchy in the international
system.
In
21st century return of great power conflict, climate change, uneven
development, migration, resource shortages, religiously motivated terrorism,
nuclear proliferation and cyber crimes are security threats to world. By its resolution 38/188 H of 20 December 1983,
the general assembly requested the secretary general to carry out a
comprehensive study of concept of security.
“Critical Security Studies” deals with the
“social construction of the security” and examine rhetorical nature of threat
discourses. CSS was originated from Marxist criticism and post-modern,
post-structuralist trends. After fall of Iron Curtain and the September 11
attacks, the debate of security gained impetus among international scholars and
governments.
Security Discourses: National Security
1940s, Comprehensive Security 1960’s, Common/Cooperative Security 1970-80s,
Human Security 1990-2000s, and Non-Traditional Security 2000s onwards.
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| Modern Elements of Power and National Power |
Elements of Power and National Power
Power is defined as “ability to subdue others”. Payne defines power as “The ability to get
others – individuals, groups or nations – to behave in a way that they
ordinarily would not.” The term 'power' is objective, dynamic and relative.
Terms used define power in global system are: unipolar, bipolar, multipolar
Unipolar: It is a hegemonic system is one in which there is one
dominant power in international system.
Bipolarity: It is international system in which
there are two dominant or super powers.
Multipolar: is international system in with
there are more than two dominant powers.
National power or state power is mix of
many ingredients. Gross domestic product, population, territory,
geography and natural resources are elements of national power. National power can also be determined from
political culture, patriotism, education of people, and strength of scientific
technological base. Realist tend to see military forces and size of
the army as most important element of national power.
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| Balance of Power |
Balance of Power
It become paramount feature of IR especially
after the treaty of Westphalia of 1648. The term balance of power was firstly known in
1701. A situation where two powerful states, or group
of states, are equal in power. The process by which counterbalancing coalitions
have repeatedly formed to prevent one state from conquering an entire region. The theory of balance of power argues that such
counterbalancing occurs regularly and maintains the stability of international
system but does not guarantee peace. The power transition theory seeks to answer what
leads to war and under what condition is peace most likely? According to it, peace is most likely when there
is clear dominant power.
Techniques
of balance of power: Alliances and Counter Alliance, Territorial
Compensations, Partition, Armament and Disarmament, Divide and rule, buffer
state, and neutralization.
Types
of BOP: On the basis of no of states involved – Simple and Multiple,
on the basis of breadth and width – local, regional, and worldwide, on
the basis of intensity – Rigid and flexible.
Characteristics
of BOP: Constantly changing, result of human effort not natural, and real
BOP does not even exist.
Importance
of BOP: Preservation of peace, modern state system, and worked for
effectiveness of International law.
But the liberals see BOP politics as
never-ending formula for conflict and for wasting resources
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| Foreign Policy and Its determinants |
Foreign
policies are the strategies that governments use to guide their action in the
international arena. A
country’s foreign policy is also known as international relations policy. It
is a policy of sovereign states for their interaction with other sovereign
states. The
first known use of foreign policy is 1804. “Foreign
policy is shaped not only by the internal dynamics of individual and group
decision making but also by the states and societies with in which
decision-makers operate, and by the international and global context” –
Goldstein and Peeve house.
Models
of Decision Making:
1)
Rational Model: In which decision maker calculate the cost and
benefits of each possible course of action, the choose the one with highest
benefit and lowest costs. Steps: Clarify your goals in the situation –
Order them by importance – List the alternatives for achieving your goals –
Investigate the consequences for each alternative – and choose the alternative
that best achieve your goals.
2)
Organization Process Model: In which policy makers or lower level
officials relay largely on standardized responses or standard operating
procedures. It implies much of the foreign policy results from “management by
muddling through”. Example: US
state department received thousands of reports or inquiries from its embassies
and sends out more than a thousand instructions and responses to those
embassies.
3)
Government bargaining model: Also called bureaucratic politics
model, foreign policy decisions results from bargaining process among various
government agencies having divergent interests.
Analysis:
The
Three factors that hamper “individual decision making” in international crisis:
1)
Misperception and Selective perception: Due to available information about
decision
2)
Rationality of individual cost-benefit calculation: Undermined by the emotions
that decision makers feel while thinking about the consequences
3)
Cognitive bias: Distortion and limitations of human brain in making choices,
human brain always tries to reduce cognitive-dissonance.
Influence of public opinion and interest
groups on the foreign policy process:
Public
Opinion: The range of views on foreign policy issues held by the citizens
of state.
Public
opinion has greater influence on foreign policy in democracies. The
influence is put through media and legislature. Even
dictators and authoritarian government pay attention to public opinion. Both
spend great effort on – propaganda to win support of public for foreign
policy.
Interest
Groups: Coalition of people who
share a common interest in outcome of some political issue and who organize
themselves to try to influence the outcome.
These
can be the farmers, businessmen, labor union, and senior citizens. These
groups do the lobbying – process of talking with legislator or officials to
influence their decision on some set of issue.
Making
Foreign Policy:
Foreign
policy process: The process by which foreign policies are arrived at and
implemented.
Comparative
foreign policy: It is the study of foreign policy in various states in
order to discover whether similar type of societies or governments consistently
have similar types of policies.
Following factors are consider while making comparative foreign policy size, wealth, extent
of domestic participation in government and political culture and history.
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| Sovereignty |
Sovereignty
and territorial integrity are central norms governing the behavior of states. The
treaty of Westphalia was the beginning of sovereign nation-state system. A
state’s right, in principle, to do whatever it wants to do in its now
territory. Sates
are saparate and autonomous and answers to no higher authority.
In
principle, all states are equal in the status, if not in power. It
also means, states are not supposed to interfere in the internal affairs of
other states. Although
states do try to influence each other (exert power) on matters of trade,
alliance, war and so on, they are not supposed to meddle in internal politics
and decision process of other states.
Presently,
terrorism and the secessionist movements present two
challenges to sovereignty and territorial integrity.
Types
of Sovereignty:
Political
Sovereignty: Obtained by voting, by the press, by speeches, and in many
other ways which can’t be described easily. – Dicey.
Popular
Sovereignty: Sovereignty obtained by the power of masses as contrasted to
power of individuals.
Real
Sovereignty: Existed in ancient times exercised by the monarchs.
Legal
sovereignty: Authority of the state which has legal power to issue final
command. And that authority is absolute and law is simply the will of
sovereign.
de-Jure
is the legal sovereignty founded on law.
de-facto
sovereignty which is actually obeyed.
According
to International Law, state is an international personality which has duties
and rights.
Montevideo
Convention on the Rights and Duties of states, 1933 establishes the state as a
person of international law. Even
though states are sovereign but their certain form of action is required or
permitted by international law is known as Opinio Juris.
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| The National Interest |
It refer
to by the French expression “raison d’etat” mean “Reason of State”. Reason
of states means “a mean between what conscience permits and affairs require.”
It is defined
as, the interests of a state overall (as opposed to particular parties or
fractions with in the state).
The
first thinker to advocate the primacy of national interest is usually
considered Niccole Machiavelli.
“Means
the general, long term and continuing purpose which the state, the nation, and
the government all see themselves as serving.” – Charles Larches.
“The meaning of international interest is
survival – the protection of physical, political and cultural
identity against encroachments by other nation-states.” – Morgenthau.
The national interests may contain non-vital
components which are determined either by circumstances, or by necessity of
securing the vital components.
Thomas W. Robinson gave a six-fold
classification of interests which nation try to secure.
Approaches
to achieve National Interest: The
methods and tools that national leaders used to achieve national interest are
called “Statecraft” these are: Diplomacy, Propaganda, Economic
Loan and Aid, Alliances and Treaty, and Force or Coerce diplomacy.
